Why Darbha Grass got prominence in vedas?

Darbha (Desmotachya bipinnata) is a tropical grass considered a sacred material in Vedic scriptures and is said to purify the offerings during such rituals.

At the time of eclipse, people place that grass in food items that could ferment and once the eclipse ends the grass is removed.

A systematic research was conducted by the SASTRA University researchers, in which cow’s curd was chosen as a food item that could ferment easily.

Five other tropical grass species, including lemon grass, Bermuda grass, and bamboo were chosen for comparison based on different levels of antibiotic properties and hydro phobicity.

Electron microscopy of different grasses revealed stunning nano-patterns and hierarchical nano or micro structures in darbha grass while they were absent in other grasses.

On studying the effect of various grasses on the microbial community of the curd, darbha grass alone was found to attract enormous number of bacteria into the hierarchical surface features.

These are the bacteria responsible for fermentation of cow’s curd. During eclipse, the wavelength and intensity of light radiations available on the earth’s surface is altered. Especially, the blue and ultraviolet radiations, which are known for their natural disinfecting property, are not available in sufficient quantities during eclipse.

This leads to uncontrolled growth of micro-organisms in food products during eclipse and the food products are not suitable for consumption. Darbha was thus used as a natural disinfectant on specific occasions, say researchers at SASTRA University.

Further, the scientists say that darbha could be used as a natural food preservative in place of harmful chemical preservatives and the artificial surfaces mimicking the hierarchical nano patterns on the surface of darbha grass could find applications in health care where sterile conditions were required.

This entire research was funded by the SASTRA University’s Research Fund.

Search for Sanjivini

When Lakshmana fell unconscious, near death, hit by an arrow from Ravana’s son Meghnad, Hanuman approached the Lankan Royal Physician Sushena for advice.

Sushena asked Hanuman to rush to Dronagiri Hills and fetch four plants: Mruthasanjeevani (restorer of life), Vishalyakarani (remover of arrows), Sandhanakarani (restorer of the skin) and Savarnyakarani (restorer of skin colour) (Srimad Valmiki Ramayana, 74th chapter, Yuddakanda, Slokas 29-34).

Hanuman, not able to pick the four from the multitude, brought back the entire hill. And Lakshmana was revived from near death back to life, and to victory.

Of the 4 plants, Mruthsanjeevani or simply Sanjeevani is the most important since it is believed to bring one from near death back to life. What then is this plant, where does it occur, and does it do what the Ramayana describes?

The contemporary Dronagiri range, some 400km from Dehradun, is named after a village in Chamoli district. According to the recent reports, researchers from ministry of AYUSH going to scour this mountain for the Sanjivini.

During this search Scientists discovered many species that have many healing properties. Among them most prominent are Cressa cretica, Selaginella bryopteris , Desmotrichum fimbriatum and Rhodiola. 

Among these four, Rhodiola has many qualities that convinces scientists. Following properties of Rhodiola are very important those are:-

1. Immunomodulatory(which enhances the immune system)
2. Adaptogenic(adaptability to the different climatic conditions)
3. radio-protecting abilities(resistant to gamma radiation incase of nuclear attack)
4. anti-depressant(in Ladakh region, soldiers are frequently succumbed to the depression due to the vast area of monotonous white coloured surface)
5. appetizer
6. anti-tuberculosis properties
7. anti-cancer properties

Though these species caters different properties, Researchers are unconvinced. Still search is continued. Recently Govt of Utterakhand announced huge budget to search for sanjivini.

What do you know about U.S Presidential Election?

U.S. Constitution Requirements for a Presidential Candidate: 

The President must: 

1. Be a natural-born citizen of the United States 
2. Be at least 35 years old 
3. Have been a resident of the United States for 14 years 

PROCESS OF US PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS: 

Step 1: Primaries and Caucuses: -

An election for President of the United States occurs every four years. Before the election, most candidates for President go through a series of state primaries and caucuses. These are done to elect the Presidential Candidate for both the parties. The Democrats and The Republicans hold their own primaries and caucuses to elect the Presidential candidate among number of hopefuls. 

Primaries are a preliminary election to appoint delegates to a party conference. These delegates further select the candidates for the presidential election. 

The primaries and caucuses are run differently but both of them are essentially conducted to elect state delegates who represent their states at national party conventions. The candidate who is able to accumulate a majority of his/her party’s delegates at the national party convention wins the party’s nomination

Primary elections are state level elections conducted by the state and local governments. In this, voting occurs through a secret ballot and voters choose candidates affiliated with their political party for the upcoming general elections. Winning candidates will send the delegates to the national party convention. The delegates selected through primaries and caucuses then officially nominate their national candidate. In total, the caucuses are held in 10 US states— Iowa, Alaska, Colorado, Hawaii, Kansas, Maine, Minnesota, Nevada, North Dakota and Wyoming. The remaining 40 states hold primaries.

Caucuses are meetings where members of political parties divide themselves into groups according to the candidate they support, with undecided voters forming into a group of their own. Each group then gives speeches supporting a candidate and tries to persuade others to join their group. At the end of the caucus, party organizers count the voters in each candidate's group and calculate how many delegates each candidate has won. The Iowa caucus marks the start of the US presidential elections.

Step 2: National Convention: -

After the primaries and caucuses, most political parties hold a national convention to select their presidential and vice presidential nominees. 

Step 3: General Election: -

The presidential candidates participate in debates and general election campaigns throughout the country to explain their views and plans to the general population and win the support of potential voters. When people cast their vote for president, they are actually voting for a group of people known as electors. They are part of the Electoral College, used to elect the U.S. President and Vice President. 

Step 4: Electoral College:-

Each state is allotted a certain number of electors depending upon its total number of representatives in Congress. The electors then cast their votes to decide the next President of the US. Each elector has one electoral vote. If a candidate obtains more than half (270) out of the total 538 electoral votes, he stands elected to the office of the President. In the event no candidate has the majority then the House of Representatives chooses the President and the Senate chooses the Vice President. Both the president-elect and vice president-elect take the oath of office in January.

 Each state’s number of electors is equal to the number of its U.S. Senators plus the number of its U.S. Representatives. Washington D.C (national capital), is given a number of electors equal to the number held by the smallest state. 

 When a candidate receives the majority of votes, he or she receives all of the state’s electoral votes. (It is possible for a candidate to receive the majority of the popular vote but not of the electoral vote and lose a presidential election.) 

Important Geographical Indications of Gujarat and Jammu & Kashmir

1. Tangaliya Shawl

A Tangaliya Shawl is a handwoven, GI protected shawl and textile made by the Dangasia community from Schedule Caste in Gujarat, India. The 700-year-old indigenous craft is native to the Surendranagar district, of Saurashtra-region of the state. Traditional variations like Ramraj, Charmalia, Dhunslu, and Lobdi are woven in village clusters of Dedara, Vastadi, Godavari and Vadla within the district.

The textile is usually used as shawl and wraparound skirt by women of the Bharwad shepherd community of Wankaner, Amreli, Dehgam, Surendranagar, Joravarnagar, Botad, Bhavnagar and Kutch area.

Tangaliya as the name suggests is derived from the word Tangalio meaning the lower part of the body. Tangaliya was traditionally a 10 by 4 cloth which was draped around the waist. However due to loom size constraints the cloth was woven 20 by 2in size and then cut in two parts and joined together to form a 10 by 4 shawl.

2. Kachchh Shawl

The shawl is woven with traditional Kutchi motifs and is processed on handlooms largely in Bhujodi, a village of Kutch.

The weavers of shawl in Kutch, who are originally from Western Rajasthan, say there is a 500 year old history in the region linked to it. They are called Meghwal Wankars (weavers).

the Meghwal community from Rajasthan migrated to Kutch, bringing with them the art of handloom weaving. Traditionally, the weavers used hand spun yarn provided by Rabaris, a nomadic community of sheep and goat herders. But among the Meghwals, the Marwadas developed a style of weaving, which provided the Kachchh community with blankets, cloth and traditional dress fabrics.

3. Kutch Embroidery

The Kutch Embroidery is a handicraft and textile signature art tradition of the tribal community of Kutch District in Gujarat, India. This embroidery with its rich designs has made a notable contribution to the Indian embroidery traditions. The embroidery, practiced normally by women is generally done on fabrics of cotton, in the form of a net using cotton or silk threads. In certain patterns, it is also crafted over silk and satin. The types of stitches adopted are “square chain, double buttonhole, pattern darning, running stitch, satin and straight stitches”. The signature effect of the colorful embroidery sparkles when small mirrors called abhla are sewn over the geometrically shaped designs. Depending on the tribal sub groups of Rabari, Garasia Jat, and Mutava involved with this craft work many hand embroidered ethnic styles have evolved. These six styles: Suf, khaarek, paako, Rabari, Garasia Jat, and Mutava.

This embroidery product of Kutch has been registered for protection under the List of Geographical indication of the Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) agreement.

History of the Kutch Embroidery is traced to the 16th and 17th centuries when people migrated from the countries such as Afghanistan, Greece, Germany, Iran and Iraq to Gujarat. It is also said that cobblers known as Mochis were trained in this art form by the Muslim sufi saints of Sindh. The art form became a vocation for women of Kutch not only to meet their own clothing requirements but also to make a living, in view of severe dry and very hot conditions of Kutch. It became a generational art with the skills taught from mother to daughter. They embroidered clothes for festive occasions and to decorate deities and to create a source of income.

4. Patan Patola

Patan Patola the ancient art of double ikat weaving in western Indian state of Gujarat. The Master wevers from the Parmar Family are carrying forward this tradition of Patan patola saree, rajkot patola saree, patola silk saree.

5 Surat Zari

The Zari industry of Surat is one of the oldest handicrafts whose origin can be traced to the Mughal period. The history of the 'zari' (gold embroidery) industry of Surat dates back to the Mughal period. Surat is one of the biggest and most significant Zari manufacturing centres in India. Zari is embroidered into silk fabrics in order to create beautiful and intricate patterns. Zari adds luster and grandeur to the silk fabric, thus transforming the garments woven from it, very resplendent.

The principal types of products are real gold and silver threads, imitation gold and silver threads, embroidery such as the 'Chalak', the 'Salama', the 'Kangari', the 'Tiki', mainly the Ring and the 'Katori' for modifying in the Kinkhab (cloth of gold) and the Zari border weaving, embroidery, laces, caps, turbans, saris, and blouse pieces. Gold and silver threads are commonly used for weaving the 'kinkhab'. 

6 Sankheda Furniture

A craft tadition so deeply inherent in the collective identity of the practitioners, that their town is named after it. Sankheda, a small town in the eastern region of gujarat derives its name from sanghedu the for the lathe in the gujarati.

Lacquered turned wood furniture with hand painted motifs and traditional method of ornamentation , popularly known as sankheda furniture is thought to have been produced here from about 1855. In this town, about 80-100 families belonging to the kharadi-suthar community are involved in this craft giving them a strong sense of community identity and continuity. 

7 Gir Kesari Mango

The famous saffron-coloured Kesar variety of mango, largely grown around the foothills of Girnar mountains in Gujarat’s Junagadh district, has got global recognition as ‘Gir Kesar’ mango after being granted the Geographical Indication (GI) tag.

The Kesar mango is the second variety of mango in India to get GI registration after the Dussheri mango variety grown in Uttar Pradesh.

8 Bhalia Wheat

Bhalia, a long grain wheat variety rich in protein and grown under conserved soil moisture conditions in Bhal region of Gujarat.

Jammu and Kashmir:-

1.  Kashmir Pashmina

Pashmina shawls are hand spun, woven and embroidered in Nepal and Kashmir, and made from fine cashmere fibre.

The wool comes from changthangi or Pashmina goat, which is a special breed of goat indigenous to high altitudes of the Himalayas in India, Nepal and Pakistan.

2. Kani Shawl

Kani means wooden bobbins or small sticks. Shawls are woven into intricate patterns, with the weft thrown across before coloured threads are woven in on a meticulous, coded pattern drawn by a master craftsman. It is woven with pure pashmina yarn in a natural, almond-coloured base or in cream with multicoloured floral patterns, creating a striking offset. Coloured Kanis are woven too, in hues such as red, blue, green and ochre. Kani is the softer version of Jamawar—the latter are long pieces of cloth woven in the same technique. A plain pashmina shawl takes between a fortnight and a month to weave, but one Kani with all-over floral work takes a year if two artisans work on it for an average of 10 hours a day.

While historians like Janet Rizvi think the craft developed in Kashmir, there are references to outside influences during the time of Shah-e-Hamdan, a Sufi poet and prominent Muslim scholar from Persia who came to Kashmir in the 14th century. Among his followers were shawl weavers, carpet-makers, potters and calligraphers.

Kani shawl patterns—vases, creepers, floral designs—can be seen on engravings and hand-painted interiors of the Shah-e-Hamdan shrine. Located in Shamswari, on the banks of the Jhelum in old Srinagar (sheher-e-khas), this is one of the state’s oldest mosques. 

The Kani shawl, which got GI (Geographical Indication) status in 2008, is one of the most complex Indian weaves.

3. Kashmiri walnut wood carvings

the raw material used for the fine woodcarving of kashmir is obtained from walnut tree locally known as 'Doon Kul' and is cut only once it matures to an age of 300 years. This wood is considered very special for number of qualities; it is available only in kashmir in india, the wood is hard and durable, it is close grain and even texture facilitates fine and detailed carvings work. Pahalgam and sonmarg in kashmir are homes to some of the oldest groves.

Wooden artefacts of the walnut have huge demand in india and in foreign countries.

4.  khatamband

Khatamband is an art of making ceiling, by fitting small pieces of wood (preferably walnut or deodar wood) into each other in geometrical patterns. The process is not done through machines but is painstakingly hand crafted and that too without using any nails. 

Processed wood is cut into panels and fixed onto the ceiling in floral and geometrical designs. The story of the origin of Khatamband in Kashmir is interesting.

It is believed that Khatamband was brought to Kashmir during the 14th Century by famous saint Shah-i-Hamdaan who visited the Himalayan valley along with many followers that also included Khatamband artists from Iran. These artisans passed on this art to local Kashmiris. Architect Bilal Sheikh says, “Khatamband got popular in Kashmir because of its beauty and quality of insulation. The Khatamband is entirely made of wood and it preserves warm internal temperatures during the bitter winters of Kashmir". Later, Mirza Hyder Douglat worked hard in spreading the art throughout Kashmir. A finished ceiling comes alive in unique geometrical patterns. With hardly any nails used, this ceiling can easily be dissembled and re-assembled at another place.

Khatamband used to be the domain of shrines, palaces, houseboats and royal houses, but now, every other person wants it for their house.

5. kashmiri papier mache:-

Kashmir papier-mâché is a handicraft of Kashmir that was brought by Muslims from Persia in the 15th century. It is based primarily on paper pulp, and is a richly decorated, colourful artefact; generally in the form of vases, bowls, or cups (with and without metal rims), boxes, trays, bases of lamps, and many other small objects. 





These are made in homes, and workshops, in Srinagar, and other parts of the Kashmir Valley, and are marketed primarily within India, although there is a significant international market.

What is Annual Survey of Industries(ASI) in India?

The Annual Survey of Industries (ASI) is the principal source of industrial statistics in India. It provides statistical information to access and evaluate, objectively and realistically, the change in the growth, composition and structure of the organised manufacturing sector comprising activities related to manufacturing processes, repair services, generation, transmission, etc., of electricity, gas and water supply and cold storage.

The ASI extends to the entire country. The survey covers all factories registered under Sections 2m (i) and 2m (ii) of the Factories Act, 1948 i.e., those factories employing 10 or more workers using the power; and those employing 20 or more workers without using power.

The survey also covers bidi and cigar manufacturing establishments registered under the Bidi and Cigar Workers (Conditions of Employment) Act,1966.

All the electricity undertakings engaged in the generation, transmission and distribution of electricity registered with the Central Electricity Authority (CEA) were covered under ASI up to 1997-98 irrespective of their employment size.

Certain services and activities like cold storage, water supply, repair of motor vehicles and of other consumer durables like watches, etc., are covered under the survey.

 Defence establishments, oil storage and distribution depots, restaurants, hotels, cafe and computer services and the technical training institutes are excluded from the purview of the survey. 

The electricity undertakings registered with the CEA are not being covered under ASI with effect from 1998-99. However, captive units not registered with CEA continued to be covered under ASI.

Schemes Under Ministry of Human Resource Development

THE essence of Human Resource Development is education, which plays a significant and remedial role in balancing the socio-economic fabric of the country. Since citizens of India are its most valuable resource, our billion-strong nation needs the nurture and care in the form of basic education to achieve a better quality of life. This warrants an all-round development of our citizens, which can be achieved by building strong foundations in education. Good quality education is the foundation of new discoveries, new knowledge, innovation and entrepreneurship that trigger growth and prosperity of the individual as well as that of a nation. For this, we need to make our curriculum and pedagogy relevant to the needs of our society and economy and nurture qualities of problem solving and creative thinking, learning-by-doing, greater engagement with the live context, and confident self-expression from a young age.

To lay emphasis on the educational development of students of weaker sections of the society, a number of innovative initiatives have been taken by the ministry such as (i) Setting up of National Monitoring Committee on Minorities (ii) Setting up of National Monitoring Committee for Education of SCs, STs and Persons with Disabilities (iii) Student Support Initiatives such as National Means-cum-Merit Scholarship Scheme (NMMSS), National Scheme of Incentive to Girls for Secondary Education (NSIGSE), Special Scholarship Scheme for Jammu and Kashmir, scheme of Interest Subsidy on Educational Loans (iv) Regulations on prevention of discrimination and Establishment of Ombudsman and (v) Development of an Anti-Ragging Web Portal. Keeping in view the priority of the Government of India, the guidelines for the implementation of the SCSP/TSP in the schemes of this Ministry have been prepared and forwarded the same to all within the Ministry and all Organizations/Institutions under this department for implementation.

The Ministry’s focus has also been on the overall and balanced educational development of all regions of the country including North-Eastern Regions (NER) and Jammu and Kashmir.

Currently, the Ministry of Human Resource Development works through two departments – 

1. Department of School Education and
2. Literacy and Department of Higher Education.

       ( — Copy Rights Board comes under this dept)

Ministry of Human Resource Development has adopted a fresh approach to meet its challanges. It is this approach that will define the thrust areas and make sure we achieve our goals with the right

value system, sensitivity and responsibility. The various policies and programmes of the ministry have successfully enabled the access to quality, inclusive, affordable and meaningful education to children and the people across the length and breadth of the country.

Elementary Education

Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009/Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan

Article 21-A of the Constitution of India and the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education (RTE) Act, 2009 became operative in the country on April 1, 2010. This development implies that every child has a right to elementary education of satisfactory and equitable quality in a formal school which satisfies certain essential norms and standards. The reform processes initiated in 2010-11 were continued during the year 2011-12, 2012-13, 2013-14 and 2014-15. All states/union territories have notified their state RTE (Rules).

Objective:- 

1. Universal Access
2. Mainstreaming the Out-of-School Children
3. Ensuring Eight year Elementary Education
4. Gender Equality

      - Kasturaba Balika Vidyalaya

(Schemes under SSA:-

• Padhe Bharat Bhade Bharat
• National Programme of Mid-day meal in Schools
• Tithi Bhojan
• Saransh
• Pandit Madan mohana Malaviaya national mission for teachers training.)

(i) Universal Access

Progress in achieving the goal of universal access under Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) has been consistent over the years. There were 1,73,757 habitations unserved by primary schools in 2001-02 when Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan was launched. Over the years 2,04,686 primary schools were sanctioned, of which 347 were sanctioned in the 2014-15. At the upper primary stage there were 2,30,941 habitations un-served by upper primary schools in 2002. Over the years 1,59,427 upper primary schools have been sanctioned in a radius of 3 km, including 248 sanctioned in 2014-15.

(ii) Special Training For Mainstreaming Out-of-School Children

The RTE Act makes specific provision for Special Training for age appropriate admission for out of- school children. A majority of out-of-school children belong to disadvantaged communities – Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, Muslims, migrants, children with special needs, urban deprived children, working children, children in other difficult circumstances, for example, those living in difficult terrain. District specific proposals have been received from the state, justifying the need for providing transportation facility to children in sparsely populated, hilly/densely forested/desert terrains, as well as urban areas where unavailability of land makes it unviable to set up schools as per the ‘neighbourhood’ norms of the state. For the year 2014-15, SSA provided ₹ 23.92 crore for provision of transport and escort facility to 82,000 children.

(iii) Uniforms

The SSA provides two sets of uniform to all girls, SC, ST children and Below Poverty Line (BPL)children, wherever (i) State Governments have incorporated provision of school uniforms as a child entitlement in their state RTE Rules, and (ii) State Governments are not already providing uniforms from the state budgets. In case any State Government is partially subsidizing the cost of uniform being supplied to children in school, than the amount under SSA is restricted to the remaining children.

(iv) Ensuring an Eight-year Elementary Education Cycle

The National System of Education envisages a common educational structure. At the elementary level, the national system of education comprises five years of primary education and three years of upper primary. Efforts have been made to follow an eight-year elementary education cycle throughout the country; however, few states continue to follow a seven-year elementary education cycle. SSA norms provide support to states to move towards an eight-year elementary education cycle through provisioning for additional teachers and classroom for Class VIII at the upper primary stage and teaching learning equipment for Classes V and VIII, in order to facilitate states to adopt an eight-year elementary education cycle. Now, all states/union territories have been provided support for moving to an eight year elementary education cycle by 2013-14.

(V) Girls’ Education

Bridging gender and social category gaps in elementary education is one of the four goals of SSA. Consequently, SSA attempts to reach out to girls and children belonging to SC, ST and Muslim minority communities. SSA has also given attention to urban deprived children, children affected by periodic migration, and children living in remote and scattered habitations. SSA has identified Special Focus Districts (SFDs) on the basis of adverse performance on indicators of girls’ enrolment, as well as concentration of SC, ST and Minority communities. RTE-SSA provides a clear thrust and special focus on education for girls and children belonging to disadvantaged groups and weaker sections. The general interventions under SSA apply to all girls and children belonging to disadvantaged and weaker sections; these include ensuring availability of primary and upper primary schools within the habitation as prescribed under the RTE Rules, uniforms, textbooks, etc. Special Training interventions are also largely focused on girls and disadvantaged groups, because it is this category of children who are most deprived of opportunities to pursue

their education.

(Vi.a) Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya

Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya (KGBV) are residential upper primary schools for girls from SC, ST, OBC Muslim communities and BPL girls. KGBVs are set up in educationally backward blocks where schools are at great distances or are a challenge to security of girls. This often compels girls to discontinue their education. The SSA framework of implementation provides that the duration of special training may be flexible, varying from three months to two years, depending on the child’s needs. Special training may be in the form of residential or nonresidential courses organized, preferably in the premises of the school, but if such facilities are not available in school, alternate facilities which are safe, secure and accessible may be identified and used. At the end of the duration of Special Training for a particular child, the suitability of placing the child in a class may be reviewed.

(VI.b)Residential Facilities

They have been provided in sparsely populated or hilly and densely forested areas with difficult geographical terrains and in densely populated urban areas, where it is difficult to get land for establishing schools residential facilities. In urban areas there are a number of urban deprived children, homeless and street children in difficult circumstances, without adult protection, who require not merely day-schooling facilities, but also lodging and boarding facilities. As of now SSA has provided 797 residential institutions with a capacity of around 88,400 children.

(VI.c)Transportation or Escort Facilities

These facilities are available for children in remote habitations with sparse populations or in urban areas where availability of land is a problem or to children belonging to extremely deprived groups or children with special needs. Such children may be provided support for transportation or escort facilities. The requirement of funds for this facility will be kept under the national component, to be utilized on receipt/appraisal of district specific proposals from the state, justifying the need for providing transportation facility to children in sparsely populated, hilly/densely forested/desert terrains, as well as urban areas where unavailability of land makes itunviable to set up schools as per the ‘neighbourhood’ norms of the state. For the year 2014-15 SSA provided ₹ 23.92 crore for provisioning of transport and escort facility to 82,000 children.

Padhe Bharat-Badhe Bharat

Another major initiative of the Government of India is a nationwide sub-programme under the SSA called ‘Padhe Bharat Badhe Bharat’. Launched in 2014, this programme has been planned in a twin track approach: 

1. to improve language development by creating an enduring interest in reading and writing with comprehension(ERWC); 
2. to create a natural and positive interest in mathematics related to their physical and social world.— Early Mathematics(EM)

The two tracks of Padhe Bharat Badhe Bharat are Early Reading and Writing with Comprehension (ERWC) and Early Mathematics (EM) particularly in class I and II. The objectives of this programme are: to enable children to become independent, and engaged readers and writers; with comprehension possessing sustainable and lasting reading and writing skills and achieve learning levels appropriate to the class of study; to make the children understand the reasoning in the domains of number, measurement and shapes; and enable them to become independent in problem solving by way of numeracy and spatial understanding skills and to associate reading, writing and early mathematics with the experience of joy and real life situation. An amount of ₹397 crore has been approved for Padhe Bharat Badhe Bharat for 2014-15.

Mid-Day Meal

With a view to enhance enrolment, retention and attendance and simultaneously to improve the nutritional status of children, a Centrally Sponsored Scheme ‘National Programme of Nutritional Support to Primary Education (NPNSPE)’-was launched on August 15, 1995. The scheme was extended during 2008-09 to cover children of upper primary classes and the name of the scheme was changed as ‘National Programme of Mid-Day Meal in Schools’. The Mid-Day Meal Scheme covers all school children studying in I to VIII classes in Government and Government aided schools, Special Training Centres (STC) and madrasas and maqtabs supported under SSA. The scheme is being revised from time to time in its content and coverage.

Tithi Bhojan – Mid-Day Meal Scheme

Mid-Day Meal Scheme (MDMS) has a big effect on school participation, not just in terms of getting more children enrolled but also in terms of regular pupil attendance. The Minister for Human Resource Development has requested all Members of Parliament to involve themselves with the committee monitoring mid-day meals in their constituency. The Best Practices from various states were identified and shared as a guide for all states in the implementation of MDMS. Regular monitoring of the health of school going children and required interventions with supplements has been suggested. The Central Government has written to the states to consider the concept of Tithi Bhojan for mid day meal in a suitable manner, to encourage local community participation in the programme.

Saransh

The CBSE Board has launched an on-line facility titled and ‘Saransh’ on November 2, 2014 for affiliated and CBSE schools. It helps the schools to look at their performance at an aggregate level and at the level of each student. All performance matrices are presented through numbers as well as in charts/graphs for easy understanding. Saransh helps schools compare their performance vis-a-vis all CBSE schools at various levels.

Pandit Madan Mohan Malviya National Mission for Teachers Training

An umbrella scheme to create synergies among the various ongoing initiatives on teachers and teaching was launched. The scheme will address all issues related to teachers, teaching, teacher preparation, professional development, curriculum design. It also aims to develop a strong professional cadre of teachers by setting performance standards and creating top class institutional facilities for innovative teaching. The scheme will also address the need to induct qualified teachers, attracting talent into teaching profession and raising the quality of teaching in schools and colleges.

Secondary Education

Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan

The scheme was launched in March, 2009 with the objective to enhance access to secondary education and improve its quality. The scheme envisages interalia, to enhance the enrolment at secondary stage by providing a secondary school with a reasonable distance of habitation, with an aim to ensure GER of 100 per cent by 2017 and universal retention by 2020. 

The other objectives include improving quality of education imparted at secondary level through making all secondary schools conform to prescribed norms, removing gender, socio-economic and disability barriers, etc.

Important physical facilities are provided which include,

 (i)  additional class rooms,  

(ii) laboratories, 

(iii) libraries, 

(iv) art and crafts room, 

(v) toilet blocks,

(vi) drinking water provisions, 

(vii) electricity / telephone/internet connectivity and 

(viii) disabled friendly provisions.

Improvement in quality through, (i) appointment of additional teachers to improve PTR (ii) inservice training of teachers, (iii) ICT enabled education, (iv) curriculum reforms and (v) teaching learning reforms. Equity aspects addressed through (i) special focus in micro planning, (ii) preference to areas with concentration of SC/ST/minority for opening of schools, (iii) special enrolment drive for the weaker section, (iv) more female teachers in schools and (v) separate toilet blocks for girls.

Vocationalization of Secondary and Higher Secondary Education

The Scheme of ‘Vocationalization of Secondary and Higher Secondary Education” approved by the Government in September 2011 and subsumed under the Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abihayan (RMSA) with effect from April, 2013 has been revised in February, 2014. The main reasons for revision were continuation of the scheme during the 12th Plan, incorporating the learning emerging out from the Haryana Pilot on NVEQF, subsuming of the Scheme under the umbrella of RMSA and alignment of the scheme with National Skills Qualifications Framework. The revised scheme is now known as ‘Vocationalisation of Secondary and Higher Secondary Education’. The scheme seeks to enhance the employability of youth through demand driven competency based, modular vocational courses; to maintain their competitiveness through provisions of multi-entry multi-exit learning opportunities and vertical mobility/interchange ability in qualifications; to fill the gap between educated and employable; and to reduce the dropout rate at the secondary level and decrease the pressure on academic higher education. The revised scheme not only introduces vocational education for the first time, nationally, at the secondary level but also seeks to integrate vocational education with general academic education. It calls for greater involvement of industry in design, delivery and assessment of skills sets and also has a provision for incentivizing Government-aided and private schools. Under the scheme demand driven, modular vocation courses referenced to National Occupation Standards (NOSs) are offered through secondary and higher secondary Government, Government-aided and recognized private schools. Till date the scheme covers 2,035 Government schools in 24 states/union territories across nine sectors including—automotive, retail, security, IT/ITeS, healthcare, agriculture, travel and tourism, physical education and sports and beauty and wellness.

Some of the significant modifications approved in the recent revision of the scheme include: 

(i)introduction of vocational education from Class IX onwards i.e. at the secondary stage for funds released under all the components of the scheme, 

(ii) 90:10 sharing pattern for funds released to the

north-eastern states including Sikkim,

(iii) provision for a flexible pool of ₹ 14.50 lakh per annum

per school for engaging resource persons including teachers/skill knowledge providers/trainers,

etc., 

(iv) provision of financial costs for engaging with the industry/Sector Skill Councils (SSCs) for assessment, certification and training, 

(v) enhancement of funds for purchase of books and elearning

material, 

(vi) financial provision (1 per cent of total budgetary outlay) for innovative

programmes under vocational education, 

(vii) cost of development of curriculum and learning materials to be a maximum of ₹ 2 lakh per skill level per job role.

Value Education Programme

The process of value inculcation cannot be same as that of developing abilities related to other subjects. Values are required to be internalized for practice in real life situations and not just remembered and recalled. The Values Education Programme of the board covers an entire spectrum of school education from grade I-XII. A wide range of themes like solidarity, unity, peace and conservation of environment are covered under this programme. It aids for more critical thinking about economic, social and moral issues as well as about universal human values. Activates in the value cards don’t sermonize but involve the learner. The values are inculcated by initiating an explanation of values discussed in the card led by its analysis and abstraction, followed by the social action and application related to it and finally summing up the activity.

Health and Wellness Programmes

The board has initiated several programmes such as Adolescent Education Programme (AEP), Comprehensive School Health, Physical Education Cards (PEC) and psychological counselling through multiple modes to ensure physical and mental wellbeing of the students. These programmes are an extension of Life Skills education which is based on an open ended approach to prepare students for acquiring interpersonal skills, decision making abilities and effectively dealing with stress right from the beginning.

Udaan

The number of girls joining the IITs is really low when compared to the total enrollment in technical education. Merely 10-12 per cent of girls are able to clear the entrance to these premier technical education institutions. Out of the several reasons the major ones are the reluctance of the parents to send their daughters for preparation of the entrance examination to distant places as well as lack of quality study opportunities in the neighbourhood. In order to promote educational opportunities for girl students, CBSE has launched the Udaan programme (giving wings to girl students), designed to provide a comprehensive platform to deserving girl students who aspire to pursue higher education in engineering, and assist them to prepare for the IIT/ JEE while studying in Classes XI and XII. The project aims at addressing the lower enrolment of girls in engineering colleges. Therefore, it is envisaged as the first step towards achieving this larger goal of addressing the quality gap between school educations and engineering entrance, by addressing the three dimensions of education – curriculum design, transaction and assessment. The aim is also to enrich and enhance teaching and learning of science and mathematics at senior secondary level. The objective of this project is to provide a platform that empowers the girl students and provides better learning opportunities to them. As a result they will be able to compete confidently at the entrance examinations in the technical education institutions and eventually become important stakeholders in the technical growth of the nation. About 946 girl students from across the country have been selected to be a part of this programme. Of these, 54 girl students are from six union territories and 117 from north-eastern states. Most of these girls come from disadvantaged socio-economic background and have shown excellent academic performance in school. Of these girls, 305 have parental income less than ₹ one lakh.

Higher and Technical Education

The Indian higher education system, which includes Technical Education, is one of the largest of the world, just after the United States and China. Higher education is the most powerful tool to build a knowledge-based society for the future. Higher education provides people with an opportunity to reflect on the critical social, economic, cultural, moral and spiritual issues facing humanity. It contributes to national development through dissemination of specialized knowledge and skills. Being at the apex of the educational pyramid, it plays a key role in producing quality

teachers for the country’s education. The National Policy on Education, 1986, revised in 1992 (NPE) states that in higher education in general and technical education in particular, steps will be taken to facilitate inter-regional mobility by providing equal access to every Indian of requisite merit regardless of his origins. The universal character of universities and other institutions of higher education is to be underscored. In the areas of research and development, and science and technology, special measures will be taken to establish network arrangements between different institutions in the country to pool their resources in such a way that participation in projects of national importance could be made possible/accessible.

Open and Distance Learning

Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) was established by an Act of Parliament in 1985 to provide access to quality education to all segments of the society. It offers high-quality, innovative and need-based programmes at different levels, to all those who require them; and reaches out to the disadvantaged by offering programmes in all parts of the country and through its centres abroad at affordable costs. IGNOU has been steadily expanding opportunities for life-long higher education and democratizing education by making it inclusive. The university has adopted a flexible and innovative open and distance learning approach which encourages learners to move from education to work and vice versa, well suited to the diverse requirements of the country, and also needed to harness the human resources in full potential and leverage the demographic dividend. IGNOU offers academic support to students through a three tier network comprise headquarters at New Delhi, 67 regional centres and 2,726 study centres spread across the country, out of which 71 study centres were established in the current financial year. It established special study centres to ensure access of higher education to the marginalized and disadvantaged section of the society. IGNOU has established 21 special study centres (11 in jail; seven in rural remote areas; two in minority-Economically and Educationally Backward Blocks [EEBB] and one in slum area). Counselling and academic support to individual student is provided through 40,389 part-time counsellors engaged at study centres. The university has staff strength of 549 teachers/academics, 1,448 technical/administrative staff. IGNOU has about 27.7 lakh students cumulatively on-roll in its various academic programmes. It offers 228 academic programmes at Doctorate, Master, Bachelor, Diploma and Certificate levels through 21 schools of studies.

Adult Education

( Adult Education:-

1. National Literacy Mission & National Literacy Mission Authorty
2. Saakshar Bharat
3. Jan Siksha Santhan
4. National Mission on Education through Information and Communication Technology (NMEICT)
5. Education of S.C,S.T and minorities
6. Gender Equality with education of Women,achieved through Beti Bachao, Beti Padahao under sarva siksha abhayan)

Besides empowering youth and adults through a variety of educational programmes, achieving universal adult literacy is a fundamental goal of Adult and Continuing Education. In fact, beginning with basic literacy programmes, activities in this sector view education in a lifelong learning perspective. Considerable progress has been made in literacy rates of the country but still the literacy levels remain uneven across different states, districts, social groups and minorities. The goal of adult education is to establish a fully literate society through improved quality and standard of Adult Education and Literacy. National Literacy Mission Authority (NLMA) is the operating and implementing organization at national level for all the activities envisaged in National Literacy Mission. 

It has two main bodies namely Council and the Executive Committee. A Strategic Communication Group, Strategic Communication Implementation Group, National Resource Group and Directorate of Adult Education assist NLMA in the discharge of this mandate. During the 12th Five Year Plan, NLMA shall strive to raise the literacy rate to 80 per cent and reduce the gender gap to less than 10 per cent.

 Saakshar Bharat has been revamped and aligned to new paradigm of lifelong learning. To promote a systematic lifelong learning, the country might require comprehensive legalization. Of the 410 districts which qualify for coverage under Saakshar Bharat Programme, 393 districts in 26 states and one union territory covering about 1.62 lakh Panchayats have been sanctioned. During 2014-15 the programme has been continued in these 393 districts. Preparatory activities like formation of management committees, opening of bank accounts and conducting the survey have been completed in most of the districts. About 25.8 lakh volunteer teachers, 1.98 lakh master trainers and more than 11.8 thousand resource persons have been trained so far. About 426 lakh basic literacy primers in 13 languages and 26 local dialects have been printed and distributed. Adult Education Centres (AECs) have been set up in over 1.52 lakh Gram Panchayats to organize continuing education programme. About 10.12 lakh literacy learning centres are currently functioning in different states of the country with an enrolment of about 5,421 lakh learners in basic literacy. About 432.8 lakh learners have appeared so far in the biannual assessment tests conducted by the National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS). About 313 lakh learners have successfully passed the assessment tests conducted under the programme upto August, 2014. Till December, 2014 an amount of ₹ 276.68 crore was released as central share to State Literacy Mission Authorities (SLMAs) for the implementation of Saakshar Bharat Programme during 2014-15. State Resource Centres (SRCs) are mandated to provide academic and technical resource support to adult and continuing education in the areas of development of teaching learning material, training of functionaries, environment building activities, action research, monitoring and evaluation etc. Presently there are 32 SRCs in the country. 

Jan Shikshan Santhans (JSSs) have continued to provide Vocational Training to non-literate, neo-literate adults and as well as school dropouts by identifying such skills as would have a market in the region of their establishment. A Management Information System (MIS) has been developed with the aim of infusing efficiency, transparency, accountability and public scrutiny of JSSs functioning. Directorate of Adult Education, a subordinate office under the Department of School Education and Literacy provided support to NLMA in the implementation of the Programme. International Literacy Day was celebrated on September 8, 2014.

Technology Enabled Learning

Department of Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development is administering the National Mission on Education through Information and Communication Technology (NMEICT) Scheme to leverage the potential of ICT, in teaching and learning process for the benefit of all the learners in higher education institutions in anytime any where mode. The three cardinal principles of Education Policy viz., access, equity and quality could be served well by providing connectivity to all colleges and universities, providing low cost and affordable access-cum computing devices to students and teachers and providing high quality e-content free of cost to all learners in the country. 

The NMEICT Scheme encompasses all the three elements. The two major components of NMEICT Scheme are: 

1. content generation and 
2. providing connectivity along with provision for access devices for institutions and learners. It seeks to bridge the digital divide, i.e. the gap in the skills to use computing devices for the purpose of teaching and learning among urban and rural teachers/learners in higher education domain and empower those, who have hitherto remained untouched by the digital revolution and have not been able to join the mainstream of the knowledge economy.

 It plans to focus on appropriate pedagogy for e-learning, providing facility of performing experiments through virtual laboratories, on-line testing and certification, on-line availability of teachers to guide and mentor learners, utilization of available Education Satellite (EDUSAT) and Direct to Home (DTH) platforms, training and empowerment of teachers to effectively use the new method of teaching learning, etc. Sakshat is envisaged as one stop education portal (www.sakshat.ac.in) to facilitate lifelong learning of the students, teachers and those in employments or in pursuit of knowledge free of cost to them. The portal is expected to be the main delivery platform for the contents developed under the NMEICT Scheme. INFLIBNET has taken up the initiative to create integrated one stop e-content portal for easy access to all the contents developed under the mission.

Education of Scheduled Castes/Scheduled Tribes and Minorities

Educational development plays a vital role for the socio-economic betterment of the weaker sections of the society which includes Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and persons with disabilities. The Government of India has taken several measures to promote the interests of the weaker sections of the society and ensure equity. Efforts have also been made to ensure better access by increasing the number of educational institutes. The National Policy on Education (NPE), 1986 (modified in 1992) gives great emphasis on the removal of disparity among different social classes. It also talks about equality of educational opportunities to those who have been denied equality so far. The National Policy also lays down the guidelines for what should be done to reduce the disparity and increase equality. To increase the educational opportunities for the SCs and the STs and other weaker sections of the society, the NPE has also suggested student support measures such as scholarships, remedial classes, hostel facilities and other forms of formal and non formal programs of technical education. The Ministry of Human Resource Development had constituted a ‘National Monitoring Committee for Education of SCs, STs and Persons with Disabilities’ in June, 2012 under the Chairpersonship of Hon’ble Minister for Human Resource Development to advise the Government on all matters pertaining to education and its pursuit for SCs, STs and persons with disabilities. The composition of the committee includes Members of Parliament, Education Ministers and Education Secretaries of State Governments of various state with concentration of SC/ST population. The committee also includes the academics, activists and administrators connected with SCs, STs and PWDs.

National Commission for Minority Educational Institutions

The National Commission for Minority Educational Institutions (NCMEI) was established on the November 11, 2004 to advise the Central Government or any State Government on protection of the constitutional rights of the minorities to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice and other allied matters. The Commission’s powers have been further amplified through the National Commission for Minorities Educational Institutions (Amendment) Act, 2006 and 2010. The commission is a quasi- judicial body and has been endowed with the powers of a Civil Court.

In 2014, from April 1, 2014 to September 30, 2014 a total number of 1,500 petitions were received in the commission. Out of 1,500 cases, 1,273 cases were disposed off in the court which included old cases and 112 cases were summarily rejected by the commission. The commission has issued Minority Status Certificate to 699 Minority Educational Institutions during 2014-15 upto September, 2014. Total Minority Status Certificates issued by the commission till September 30, 2014 are 10,094.

Educational Development of Women

The National Policy on Education (NPE), 1986, as revised in 1992, a path breaking policy document, articulates the Government of India’s unequivocal commitment, that ‘Education will be used as an agent of basic change in the status of women. In order to neutralize the accumulated distortions of the past, there will be a well-conceived edge of women…. This will be an act of faith and social engineering.... The removal of women’s illiteracy and obstacles inhibiting their services, setting time targets and effective monitoring...’ Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) : Bridging gender and social category gaps in elementary education is one of the four goals of SSA. Consequently, SSA attempts to reach out to girls and children belonging to SC, ST and Muslim minority communities. The targeted provision for girls under SSA include:- Free textbooks to all girls upto class VIII; separate toilets for girls; back to school camps for out-of-school girls; bridge courses for older girls; recruitment of additional teachers including women teachers; early childhood care and education centres in/near schools/ convergence with ICDS programme, etc.; teachers’ sensitization programmes to promote equitable learning opportunities; gender-sensitive teachinglearning materials including textbooks; intensive community mobilization efforts; and ‘innovation fund’ per district for need based interventions for ensuring girls’ attendance and retention. Some recent major initiatives of the Government of India for Girls Education: (i) ‘Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao’: Under this scheme, ₹ 5 crore will be made available for strengthening girls’ education in 100 specified districts on the basis of child sex ratio which works out to ₹ 5 lakh per district, for instituting district level awards to be given to five schools in each district every year on the following parameters: 

(a) ₹ 1 lakh award may be given to the school management committee (SMC) which enrols 100 per cent girls in the neighbourhood of the primary school and also retains them in the first year; 

(b) another ₹ 1 lakh can be given as an award to the SMC of a primary school which causes the transition of 100 per cent girls studying in class V into class VI of same/other neighbourhood upper primary schools;

(c) two awards each of ₹ 1 lakh may be given  to SMCs of upper primary schools which affect a 100 per cent transition of girls studying in class VIII to class IX in same/other neighbourhood secondary schools; and (d) ₹ 1 lakh award can be given to the SMC of the school which affect 100 per cent transition of girls studying in class X to XII in same/neighbourhood higher secondary schools.

Construction of Toilets with Separate Girls’ Toilets

As per UDISE 2013-14 a total of 2.44 lakh schools still do not have toilet facilities. The Prime Minister in his Independence Day speech on August 15, 2014 gave a call for education of girls and made a commitment to the nation that every school will have toilet within one year with a separate girls’ toilet, so that girls are not compelled to leave the schools mid way. The Prime Minister also gave a call to the Parliamentarians to use their MPLAD fund for construction of toilets. He also called upon the corporate sector to use their Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) in funds this national endeavour. Under SSA, the requirement of school infrastructure facilities including toilets and drinking water are worked out by the state based on need at school/village/block and district level, and reflected in their annual work plans and budgets. All new schools sanctioned under SSA are composite schools with facilities for girls and boys toilets. In existing rural schools, facilities for toilets and drinking water are provided in convergence with the schemes of the Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation. The provision of toilets is one of the important provisions

prescribed in the Schedule to RTE Act to be provided in all schools. Total of 9.18 lakh toilets have been sanctioned under SSA so far, of which 4.49 lakh are girls’ toilets.

Mahila Samakhya 

Mahila Samakhya (MS) is an ongoing scheme for women’s empowerment that was initiated in 1989 to translate the goals of the National Policy on Education into a concrete programme for the education and empowerment of women in rural areas, particularly those from socially and economically marginalized groups. The objectives of the MS programme is to create an environment in which education can serve the objectives of women’s equality and where women can seek knowledge and information and thereby empower them to play a positive role in their own development and development of society. Currently the programme is being implemented in 44,446 villages in 679 educationally backward blocks of 130 districts in 11 states.

Copyright

Acquisition of copyright is automatic and it does not require any formality. Copyright comes into existence as soon as a work is created and no formality is required to be completed for acquiring copyright. However, as per Section 48 of the Act, certificate of registration of copyright and the entries made therein serve as prima facie evidence in a court of law with reference to dispute relating to ownership of copyright. 

The Copyright Office was established in 1958 under Section 9(1) of the Copyright Act, 1957. It functions under the administrative control of the Department of Higher Education. It is headed by the Registrar of Copyright, who has quasi-judicial powers in handling cases relating to copyright. The main function of the Copyright Office is to undertake registration of copyright. The Register of Copyrights maintained by the Copyright Office provides information regarding works of copyright to the general public. Now Copyright Office has been separated and is functioning as a separate entity. In addition to registration, facilities like inspection of the Register and taking extracts thereof are also available in the Copyright Office.  As provided under section 13 of the Copyright Act, 1957, copyright subsists in the following classes or works: 

1. original literary, software, musical, and artistic works; 
2. cinematographic films; and 
3. sound recording.

The Copyright Office also registers changes in the particulars of copyright entered in the Register of Copyrights in accordance with Rule 70 of the Copyright Rules, 2013. Section 47 of the Act also provides for inspection of the Register of Copyrights or taking certified copies of the extracts from the Register of Copyrights by any interested person against payment of the prescribed fee. To facilitate this, an index of the works whose particulars have been entered in the Register is also maintained in the Copyright Office. While minor corrections and changes in particulars entered in the Register can be made by the Registrar, the Copyright Board is empowered to expunge any entries made in the register on an application by the Registrar or any person aggrieved. As per Section 45 of the Copyright Act, 1957 either the author or publisher or owner of copyright or any other person interested in the copyright of a work can make an application in the prescribed format along with prescribed fee to the Registrar of Copyright for entering particulars of the work in the Register of Copyrights. The Copyright Office provides registration facilities to all types of works and the applications for registration of works can be sent through post to Copyright Office and online applications also be filed. About 7,733 works have been registered, moreover 10,948 works have been received during April 1, 2014 to December 12, 2014.

The E-filing facility has been started on February 17, 2014 and a new logo of copyright with newly designed certificate has also been issued. Digitization of copyright records is also being started soon. There is a quasi-judicial body Copyright Board which was constituted in September, 1958 and had been functioning on part-time basis. The jurisdiction of the Copyright Board extends to the whole of India. The Board is entrusted with the task of adjudication of disputes pertaining to copyright registration and assignment of copyright, rectification of registration, grant of compulsory licences in respect of works withheld from public, unpublished Indian works, for benefit of physically disabled persons, production and publication of translations and works for certain specified purposes. The Copyright Board also determines and fixes rate of royalties for statutory licences for cover versions and broadcasting of literary and musical works and sound recordings. It also hears cases in other miscellaneous matters instituted before it under the Copyright Act, 1957. The Copyright (Amendment) Act, 2012 provides for a three member permanent Copyright Board consisting of a Chairman and two other members. All required formalities to set up the Copyright Board have been completed.